v
Contents
Preface and Acknowledgments xi;
Abbreviations xiii;
1. Overview 1;
Organization of the Report 6;
Main Findings 8;
Common Themes 31;
Notes 32;
References 33;
2. Adivasis 37;
Poverty and the Gap between Adivasis and Non-Adivasis 40;
The Survival Disadvantage: Mortality among Adivasi Children 47;
Other Processes Related to Higher Mortality among Adivasi Children 56;
Land and Natural Resources: A Central Role in Explaining Tribal Deprivation 64;
Adivasi Deprivation Is Tied Up with the Limited Voice of Adivasis 72;
Notes 74;
References 77;
3. Dalits 83;
Educational Expansion for All: Yet More for Some than for Others 86;
How Does the Labor Market Behave toward Dalits? 89;
Social Networks: Does It Boil Down to Whom You Know? 109;
Voice and Agency Have Accompanied Economic Change 112;
Conclusion 117;
Annex 119;
Notes 121;
References 121;
4 Women 127;
The Survival Disadvantage 128;
Markets and Assets: Some Progress, but Continuing Disadvantage 149;
Voice and Visibility in Public Spaces 160;
Conclusion 167;
Notes 168;
References 168;
Boxes;
1.1 Roma in Europe: A Large Ethnic Minority Excluded
at High Cost 4;
2.1 Melghat: Years of Reporting Malnutrition 48;
2.2 Mistrust Is a Barrier to Adivasi Access to Health Services 62;
2.3 Distress Migration among Adivasis 68;
3.1 Intergenerational Mobility Is Visible, but Restricted among Dalits 104;
3.2 State Support and Entrepreneurial Spirit Can Change Outcomes 108;
4.1 Conditional Cash Transfers to Improve Survival
and Development Outcomes among Women and Girls 141;
4.2 Kudumbashree: Innovation for Results 160;
4.3 Legislation Can Have Unintended Consequences,
Both Good and Not So Good 163;
4.4 The Challenge of Giving Excluded Groups Space in Political Decision Making in Latin America 164;
4.5 What Do You Want to Do? Who Do You Want to Be? What Is Stopping You? The Aspirations of Young Girls in a South Delhi Slum 166;
Figures;
1.1 Rural Adivasi Children: Lower Risk of Dying at Birth, but Greater Risk by Age 5 12;
1.2 More ST Children Are Severely Stunted and Wasted within the First 10 Months of Birth, 2005–06 14;
1.3 Change in Postprimary Education, by Caste and Gender, 1983–2005 17;
1.4 A Small Labor Market Transition among Dalit Men:
Out of Casual Labor into Self-Employment 19;
1.5 Wage Differentials between Dalits and Others Are Higher in Salaried Work than in Casual Work 21;
1.6 Only in India and Nepal Is Infant Mortality Higher
among Girls than among Boys 25;
1.7 The Experience of Violence Is Associated with Worse
Outcomes among Women and Their Children 27;
2.1 Consumption Growth among Urban STs Was Highly
Skewed with Bigger Gains Near the Top of the Distribution 46;
2.2 The District-Level Relationship between Infant Mortality and the Concentration of STs 51;
2.3 Adivasi Children: Lower Risk of Dying at Birth, but Greater Risk by Age 5 51;
2.4 More ST Children Are Severely Stunted and Wasted
within the First 10 Months of Birth, 2005–06 57;
2.5 Tribal Children: Less Likely to Fall Sick with Cough or Fever, but Much Less Likely to Be Treated 58;
2.6 Mothers of Tribal Children Are Less Likely to Receive Health Care 60;
3.1 Change in Postprimary Education, by Caste and Gender, 1983–2005 87;
3.2 Dalit Men: More Likelihood of Casual Labor in Rural Areas; Less Likelihood of Self-Employment in Urban Areas 93;
3.3 Where Does Education Take Rural Men in the
Labor Market? 98;
3.4 Where Does Education Take Urban Men in the Labor Market? 99;
3.5 Salaried Work: Wage Differentials between Dalits
and Others Are Higher 100;
3.6 Adivasis and Dalits Have Few Social Networks in the Formal Sector 105;
4.1 Only in India and Nepal Is Infant Mortality Higher among Girls than among Boys 130;
4.2 Fertility Is Declining: Rates in Many Indian States Resemble Rates in Developed Countries 131;
4.3 Nearly One-Fourth of Indian Women 20–24 Had Their First Child by the Age of 18 135;
4.4 A Majority of Indian and Bangladeshi Parents Do Not Consider Daughters as Sources of Old Age Support 138;
4.5 Indian Women Face a 1 in 70 Chance of Dying in Childbirth 139;
4.6 Occupational Structure Is Changing More among Men than among Women, and the Differences across Social Groups Are Large 152;
4.7 Women Are Paid Less than Men across the Wage Distribution 155;
4.8 The Aspirations of Women Doing Only Domestic Work 156;
4.9 Almost Half of MGNREGS Participants Are Women,
but Some States Do Better than Others, 2010 159;
Tables
1.1 Poverty Rates: STs Are 20 Years behind the Average Population 11;
1.2 Adivasi Child Mortality Exceeds the Relative Population Share in Rural Areas 12;
1.3 The Representation of Dalits in Government Jobs, 2006 20;
1.4 Three in Five Women Cite Lack of Credit as a Reason for Not Doing the Work They Want 30;
2.1 In Terms of Poverty, STs Are 20 Years behind the Average Population 41;
2.2 The Depth and Severity of Poverty Have Declined More Slowly among STs than among Other Social Groups 43;
2.3 The Increasing Concentration of STs in the Poorest Wealth Deciles, 1993–2005 44;
2.4 Trends in Poverty Incidence in States with a High Proportion of Adivasis 45;
2.5 Child Mortality among Adivasis Far Exceeds Their Relative Share in the Rural Population 49;
2.6 Child Mortality Rates among STs, by State, 2005 50;
2.7 STs and Non-STs: The Gap in the Relative Hazard Rate 52;
2.8 Early Childhood Mortality Rates by Residence and Ethnicity among Different Cohorts, 2005 54;
2.9 ST Children: The Breadth of Immunization Coverage Improved, but the Intensity Expanded More Slowly 60;
2.10 The Average Landholding in Rural Areas 65;
3.1 Odds Ratios Predicting Labor Force Participation 91;
3.2 Small Labor Market Transitions among Dalit Men, While Dalit Women Are Exiting Casual Work and the Labor Market 92;
3.3 The Representation of Dalits in Government Jobs, 2006 102;
3.4 What Do Self-Employed Men Do? 106;
3A.1 Type of Employment, Rural Men 119;
3A.2 Type of Employment, Urban Men 120;
4.1 The Decline in Reported Son Preference in India, 1992–93 to 2005–06 133;
4.2 The Slow Decline in Maternal Mortality Rates,
India, 2001–03 to 2004–06 140;
4.3 Antenatal Care Improved in 1998–2005, but Most Women Still Do Not Find Giving Birth in Medical Facilities Necessary 143;
4.4 Indian Women Who Experience Domestic Violence Also Report Poorer Reproductive Health Outcomes 145;
4.5 Women in Rapidly Growing Regions (West and South) Show Higher Odds of Labor Force Participation 151;
4.6 Three in Five Women Cite a Lack of Credit as a Reason for Not Doing the Work They Want 157;
4.7 The Poor Awareness of Women about Available Credit Facilities 158.