CONTENTS
Preface v
Table of Cases xv
Table of Statutes xxxv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
TORT AND OTHER TYPES OF LIABILITY 2
FUNCTIONS OF TORT LAW 5
Appeasement and vindication of rights 6
Justice 6
Deterrence 7
Public forum function 8
Compensation function 9
HUMAN RIGHTS 11
CONCLUSION 11
2 DUTY OF CARE 13
INTRODUCTION 13
THE ELEMENTS OF NEGLIGENCE 13
DUTY OF CARE 15
Pre-1932 16
Post-Donoghue 23
Post-Anns 25
Post-Caparo 31
HUMAN RIGHTS 32
SPECIFIC AREAS OF DIFFICULTY 39
Omissions 40
IMMUNITY BASED ON THE DEFENDANT’S STATUS. 53
Police 53
Other emergency services. 58
Public authorities 67
3 BREACH OF DUTY 91
INTRODUCTION 91
STANDARD OF CARE 92
FACTORS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT 96
Magnitude of the risk 97
Seriousness of the harm 103
Cost and practicality of precautions 104
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Social utility of the defendant’s activity 106
Special standards 107
Professional persons 107
Common practice 114
Children 125
Sporting competition 128
Proof of breach 132
4 CAUSATION AND REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 137
INTRODUCTION 137
CAUSATION IN FACT 137
The extent of the harm 143
Successive causes 146
Multiple causes 155
Proof of causation 155
Lost chance 164
REMOTENESS OF DAMAGE 166
Type of harm 169
Manner of occurrence 170
Extent of the harm 173
Egg-shell skull rule 174
Claimant’s economic state 175
Intervening events 176
Intervening natural events 177
Intervening negligent acts by third parties 177
Deliberate intervention by third parties 180
Act of the claimant 187
5 LIABILITY FOR PSYCHIATRIC INJURY 191
INTRODUCTION 191
PRIMARY VICTIMS 192
SECONDARY VICTIMS 196
6 LIABILITY FOR ECONOMIC LOSS 259
PURE ECONOMIC LOSS 260
GENERAL RULE AGAINST RECOVERY 278
The notable exception 280
RELIANCE 305
OTHER EXCEPTIONAL CASES 309
CONCLUSION 328
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7 OCCUPIER’S LIABILITY 329
INTRODUCTION 329
LIABILITY TO LAWFUL VISITORS 330
Who is an occupier? 331
Who is a lawful visitor? 336
THE COMMON DUTY OF CARE 338
Variations in the standard of care 341
Warning notices 348
Liability for independent contractors 349
Limitations on the extent of the duty 354
Restriction or exclusion of liability 357
Liability to trespassers 358
8 PRODUCT LIABILITY 363
INTRODUCTION 364
COMMON LAW 364
Who owes the duty? 364
To whom is the duty owed? 367
STANDARD OF CARE 368
CAUSATION/REMOTENESS 372
STRICT LIABILITY 373
COMMENTARY 386
Products covered 386
Producer 387
Actionable damage 387
Defect 388
Defences 388
9 STRICT LIABILITY 393
INTRODUCTION 393
LIABILITY FOR ESCAPES OF THINGS 393
Non-natural use 396
Escape 398
Status of the claimant 399
Defences 401
Remoteness of damage 402
LIABILITY FOR FIRE 405
Fire under Rylands v Fletcher 406
Negligence 409
Nuisance 411
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LIABILITY FOR ANIMALS 413
Common law 413
Animals Act 1971 414
COMMENTARY 419
Defences 425
10 NUISANCE 429
INTRODUCTION 429
DISTINCTION BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE NUISANCE 430
PRIVATE NUISANCE 437
Interests protected 437
Conduct covered 441
Activity or conduct must be unreasonable 441
Negligence a factor? 441
Continuing or isolated escape? 448
Substantial harm 449
Locality 450
Social utility 451
Claimant’s hypersensitivity 452
Duration, frequency and intensity 453
Motive 453
Who can be sued? 454
Remoteness of damage 456
Types of damage recoverable 459
Defences 459
REMEDIES FOR NUISANCE 462
11 TRESPASS TO THE PERSON 469
INTRODUCTION 469
DIRECT HARM 470
Nature of liability in trespass to the person 472
Hostility 477
Assault and battery 481
Intentionally caused harm outside trespass 486
DEFENCES TO ASSAULT AND BATTERY 487
Self-defence 488
Provocation 488
Contributory negligence 489
Ex turpi causa and volenti 490
Consent 492
FALSE IMPRISONMENT 494
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12 DEFAMATION 501
INTRODUCTION 501
WHO CAN SUE? 502
THE MEANING OF DEFAMATORY 503
DEFAMATORY OF THE CLAIMANT 507
PUBLICATION 509
Difference between libel and slander 510
DEFENCES 512
Responsibility for publication 512
Offer to make amends 513
Justification 516
Absolute privilege 516
Qualified privilege at common law 518
Statutory qualified privilege 536
Fair comment 541
MALICE 542
DAMAGES 543
13 DEFENCES 549
INTRODUCTION 549
VOLENTI NON FIT INJURIA 549
CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE 557
14 VICARIOUS LIABILITY 565
INTRODUCTION 565
TEST FOR DECIDING WHO IS AN EMPLOYEE 566
COURSE OF EMPLOYMENT 572
Time 572
Place 573
What was the employee employed to do? 574
Benefit of employer 575
Express prohibitions by employer 577
LENDING OF VEHICLES 579
15 ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGES 581
INTRODUCTION 581
GENERAL AND SPECIAL DAMAGES 582
AGGRAVATED AND EXEMPLARY DAMAGES 583
LUMP SUM 589
Pecuniary and non-pecuniary losses 592
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Medical expenses 593
Loss of earnings 595
THE LOST YEARS 610
DEDUCTIONS FROM DAMAGES 612
Comment 616
Collateral benefits 617
Loss of earning capacity 618
Pain and suffering 619
Loss of amenity 620
DAMAGES ON DEATH 621
CONCLUSION 627
Index 629