Introduction to the Third Edition vii UNIT ONE: An Approach to Academic Writing 1 Audience 4 Purpose and Strategy 6 Organization 8 Style 14 Language Focus: The Vocabulary Shift Verbs 17 Language Focus: The Vocabulary Shift Nouns and 20 Other Parts of Speech Language Focus: Other Stylistic Features 22 Flow 30 Language Focus: Linking Words and Phrases 37 Presentation 48 Positioning 53; UNIT TWO: General-Specific and Specific-General Texts 55 Opening with General Statements 61 Opening with Statistics 64 Opening with Definitions 65 Writing a Definition 65 Some Common Ways to Define in Academic Writing 67 Language Focus: Verbs in Defining and Naming 68 A Brief Look at the Elements of Formal Sentence Definitions 71 Extended Definitions 74 Variations in Definitions 84 Discussions of Schools of Thought 89 Specific-to-General Organization 92; UNIT THREE: Problem, Process, and Solution 100 The Structure of Problem-Solution Texts 101 Language Focus: Mid-Position Adverbs 105 Procedures and Processes 108 Language Focus: -ing Clauses to Indicate Cause and Effect 115 Language Focus: Passive Voice 119 Flow of Ideas in a Process Description 125 Language Focus: Indirect Questions 133 Introducing the Solution 137; UNIT FOUR: Data Commentary 139 Strength of Claim 139 Structure of Data Commentary 144 Location Elements and Summaries 147 Language Focus: Verbs in Indicative and Informative 149 Location Statements Language Focus: Linking as Clauses 152 Highlighting Statements 156 Language Focus: An Introduction to Qualifications and 156 Strength of Claim Language Focus: Specific Ways of Moderating or Qualifying 159 a Claim Organization 165 Language Focus: Comparisons 167 Concluding a Commentary 172 Language Focus: Dealing with Unexpected Outcomes or “Problems” 174 Dealing with Graphs 177 Dealing with Chronological Data 181 Language Focus: Prepositions of Time 183; UNIT FIVE: Writing Summaries 188 Considerations before Writing a Summary 189 Some Notes on Plagiarism 196 Paraphrasing 202 Careful Use of Synonyms 206 Language Focus: Identifying the Source 211 Language Focus: Summary Reminder Phrases 216 Syntheses of More than One Source 220 Language Focus: Showing Similarities and Differences 225; UNIT SIX: Writing Critiques 228 Book Reviews 230 Language Focus: Stating Opinions 239 Language Focus: Evaluative Language 242 Evaluating a Published Article 248 Language Focus: Unreal Conditionals 260 Language Focus: Evaluative Language Revisited 262 Critical Reading 265 Language Focus: Beginning the Critique 268 Language Focus: Inversions 269 Reaction Papers 270 Language Focus: Non-Standard Quotation Marks (Scare Quotes) 274 A Few Thoughts on Manuscript Reviews for a Journal 276; UNIT SEVEN: Constructing a Research Paper I 277 Types of Journal Publication 278 Short Communications (SCs) in Disciplines that Report Fieldwork 280 Longer Research Papers 284 Methods Sections 289 Language Focus: Linking Phrases in Methods Sections 301 Results Sections 305 Language Focus: Another Look at Location Statements 309 Language Focus: Special Verb Agreements 314 Language Focus: Making Comparisons 316; UNIT EIGHT: Constructing a Research Paper II 327 Introductions 327 Creating a Research Space 331 Language Focus: Citation and Tense 344 Language Focus: Negative Openings in Move 2 350 Language Focus: Purpose Statements and Tense 356 Discussion Sections 363 Language Focus: Levels of Generalization 371 Language Focus: Expressions of Limitation 372 Unfinished Business 378; Appendixes 390 Appendix One: The Grammar of Definitions 390; Appendix Two: Articles in Academic Writing 395; Appendix Three: Academic English and Latin Phrases 403; References 407