CONTENTS
Foreword xiii
Preface to the Eleventh Edition
AX
Acknowledgments xix
Walk-through of eLogic Online Tutorial xxii
PART ONE LOGIC AND LANGUAGE 1
CHAPTER 1 BASIC LOGICAL CONCEPTS 3
1.1 What Logic Is 3
1.2 Propositions and Sentences 4
1.3 Arguments, Premisses, and Conclusions 6
Exercises 8
1.4 Analyzing Arguments 11
A. Paraphrasing 12
B. Diagramming 13
C. Interwoven Arguments 15
Exercises 18
1.5 Recognizing Arguments 21
A. Conclusion- and Premiss-indicators 21
B. Arguments in Context 22
C. Premisses Not in Declarative Form 24
D. Unstated Propositions 26
Exercises 28
1.6 Arguments and Explanations 35
Exercises 37
1.7 Deduction and Validity
1.8 Induction and Probability 43
1.9 Validity and Truth 46
1.10 Complex Argumentative Passages 50
Exercises 54
1.11 Reasoning 58
Exercises 64
Challenge to the Reader 67
Summary of Chapter 1 68
CHAPTER 2 THE USES OF LANGUAGE 71
2.1 Three Basic Functions of Language 71
2.2 Discourse Serving Multiple Functions 74
2.3 The Forms of Discourse 76
Exercises 80
2.4 Emotive Words
Exercise 88
2.5 Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement 88
Exercises 91
2.6 Emotively Neutral Language 95
Exercise 97
Summary of Chapter 2 97
CHAPTER 3 DEFINITION 99
3.1 Disputes, Verbal Disputes, and Definitions 99
Exercise 102
3.2 Kinds of Definition and the Resolution of Disputes 102
1. Stipulative Definitions 103
2. Lexical Definitions 105
3. Precising Definitions 106
4. Theoretical Definitons 109
5. Persuasive Definitions 110
Exercises 111
3.3 Extension and Intension 114
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Exercises 117
3.4 Extensional Definitions 118
Exercises 120
3.5 Intensional Definitions 120
Exercises 124
3.6 Rules for Definition by Genus and Difference 125
Exercises 129
Summary of Chapter 3 134
CHAPTER 4 FALLACIES 137
4.1 What Is a Fallacy? 137
4.2 Fallacies of Relevance 139
R1. The Argument from Ignorance: Argument Ad Ignorantiam 139
R2. The Appeal to Inappropriate Authority: Argument Ad Verecundiam 141
R3. Argument Ad Hominem 143
A. Argument Ad Hominem, Abusive 143 inl omm
B. Argument Ad Hominem, Circumstantial 144
R4. The Appeal to Emotion: Argument Ad Populum 145
R5. The Appeal to Pity: Argument Ad Misericordiam 147 t
R6. The Appeal to Force: Argument Ad Baculum 148
R7. Irrelevani Conclusion: Ignoratio Elenchi 149
Exercises 150
4.3 Fallacies of Presumption 156
PL. Complex Question 156
P2. False Cause 158
P3. Begging the Question: Petitio Principii 159
P4. and P5. Accident and Converse Accident 160
Exercises 161
4.4 Fallacies of Ambiguity 163
A1. Equivocation 163
A2. Amphiboly 165
A3. Accent 165
A4. Composition 167
A5. Division 168
Exercises 171
Summary of Chapter 4 177
PART TWO DEDUCTION 179
CHAPTER 5 CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS 181
5.1 The Theory of Deduction 181
5.2 Categorical Propositions and Classes 182
Exercises 184
5.3 Quality, Quantity, and Distribution 185
A. Quality 185
B. Quantity 185
C. General Schema of Standard-Form Categorical Propositions 186 nuba S
D. Distribution 186
Exercises 188
5.4 The Traditional Square of Opposition 188
A. Contradictories 189
B. Contraries 189
C. Subcontraries 190
D. Subalternation 190
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E. The Square of Opposition 191
Exercises 193
5.5 Further Immediate Inferences 193
B. Obversion 195
C. Contraposition 197
Exercises 200
5.6 Existential Import and the Interpretation of Categorical Propositions 202
Exercises 207
5.7 Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical Propositions 208
Exercises 213
Summary of Chapter 5 214
CHAPTER 6 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS 217
6.1 Standard-Form Categorical Syllogisms 217
A. Major, Minor, and Middle Terms 217
B. Mood 218
C. Figure 218
Exercises 220
6.2 The Formal Nature of Syllogistic Argument 221
Exercises 223
6.3 Venn Diagram Technique for Testing Syllogisms 224
Exercises 230
6.4 Syllogistic Rules and Syllogistic Fallacies 232
6.5 Exposition of the 15 Valid Forms of the Categorical Syllogism 236
Exercises 239
6.6 Deduction of the 15 Valid Forms of the Categorical Syllogism 242
Exercises 245
Summary of Chapter 6 246
CHAPTER 7 ARGUMENTS IN ORDINARY LANGUAGE 249
7.1 Syllogistic Arguments in Ordinary Language 249
7.2 Reducing the Number of Terms in a Syllogistic Argument 250
Exercises 252
7.3 Translating Categorical Propositions into Standard Form 253
Exercises 260
7.4 Uniform Translation 261
Exercises 263
7.5 Enthymemes 269
Exercises 272
7.6 Sorites 275
Exercises 277
7.7 Disjunctive and Hypothetical Syllogisms 279
Exercises 282
7.8 The Dilemma 287
Exercises 291
Summary of Chapter 7 296
CHAPTER 8 SYMBOLIC LOGIC 299
8.1 The Symbolic Language of Modern Logic 299
8.2 The Symbols for Conjunction, Negation, and Disjunction 300
A. Conjunction 301
B. Negation 303
C. Disjunction 304
D. Punctuatiom 306
Exercises 309
8.3 Conditional Statements and Material Implication 312
Exercises 319
8.4 Argument Forms and Arguments 321
A. Refutation by Logical Analogy 321
B. Testing Arguments on Truth Tables 324
C. Some Common Valid Argument Forms 326
Disjunctive Syllogism 326
Modus Ponens 327
Modus Tollens 328
Hypothetical Syllogism 328
D. Some Common Invalid Argument Forms 330
E. Substitution Instances and Specific Forms 330 MA YOOJAA IT AH
Exercises 331
8.5 Statement Forms and Material Equivalence 335
A. Statement Forms and Statements 335
B. Tautologous, Contradictory, and Contingent Statement Forms 335
C. Material Equivalence 337
D. Arguments, Conditional Statements, and Tautologies 338
Exercises 339
8.6 Logical Equivalence 340
8.7 The Paradoxes of Material Implication 343
8.8 The Three "Laws of Thought" 344
Summary of Chapter 8 346
CHAPTER 9 THE METHOD OF DEDUCTION 349
9.1 Formal Proof of Validity 349
Exercises 352
9.2 The Rule of Replacement 359
Exercises 364
9.3 Proof of Invalidity 372
Exercises 374
9.4 Inconsistency 375
Exercises 378
Summary of Chapter 9 382
CHAPTER 10 QUANTIFICATION THEORY 385
10.1 Singular Propositions 385
10.2 Quantification 387
10.3 Traditional Subject-Predicate Propositions 391
Exercises 396
10.4 Proving Validity 398 gml InielcM bns
Exercises 404
10.5 Proving Invalidity 406
Exercises 409
10.6 Asyllogistic Inference 411
Exercises 414
Summary of Chapter 10 419
PART THREE INDUCTION 421
CHAPTER 11 ANALOGY AND PROBABLE INFERENCE 423
11.1 Argument by Analogy 423
Exercises 426
11.2 Appraising Analogical Arguments 430
Exercises 434
11.3 Refutation by Logical Analogy 440
Exercises 443
Summary of Chapter 11 446
CHAPTER 12 CAUSAL CONNECTIONS: MILL's METHODS OF
310
EXPERIMENTAL INQUIRY 449
12.1 Cause and Effect 449
A. The Meaning of "Cause" 449
Contents
B. Causal Laws and the Uniformity of Nature 452
C. Induction by Sinmple Enumeration 453
12.2 Mill's Methods 455
1. The Method of Agreement 456
Exercises 458
2. The Method of Difference 460
Exercises 462
3. The Joint Method of Agreement amd Difference 466
Exercises 467
4. The Method of Residues 470
Exercises 472
5. The Method of Concomitant Variation 474
Exercises 476
12.3 Critique of Mill's Methods 480
A. The Limitations of Mill's Methods 480
B. The Power of Mill's Methods 481
Exercises 482
Summary of Chapter 12 491
CHAPTER 13 SCIENCE AND HYPOTHESIS 493
13.1 The Values of Science 493
13.2 Explanations: Scientific and Unscientific 494
13.3 Evaluating Scientific Explanations 496
1. Compatibility with Previously Well-established Hypotheses 496
2. Predictive or Explanatory Power 497
3. Simplicity 499
13.4 Seven Stages of Scientific Investigation 500
1. Identifying the Problem 500
2. Devising Preliminary Hypotheses 500
3. Collecting Additional Facts 501
4. Formulating the Explanatory Hypothesis 501
5. Deducing Further Consequences 502
6. Testing the Consequences 502
7. Applying the Theory 503
Exercises 504
13.5 Scientists in Action: The Pattern of Scientific Investigation 504
13.6 Crucial Experiments and Ad Hoc Hypotheses 510
A. Crucial Exp
B. Ad Hoc Hypotheses 512
13.7 Classification as Hypothesis 518
Exercises 522
Summary of Chapter 13 530
CHAPTER 14 PROBABILITY 533
14.1 Alternative Conceptions of Probability 533
A. The A Priori Theory of Probability 534
B. The Relative Frequency Theory of Probability 535
14.2 The Probability Calculus 536
14.3 Probability of Joint Occurrences 537
Exercises 541
14.4 Probability of Alternative Occurrences 543
Exercises 548
Challenge to the Reader 549
14.5 Expected Value 549
Exercises 556
Challenge to the Reader 558
Summary of Chapter 14 558
Solutions to Selected Exercises 560
Special Symbols 621
Glossary/Index 623